Introduction
About this week...
This week we are examining the broad structure of arguments, including functional elements and how to use them for the purpose of evaluation or analysis. The links to this week's readings are in the Required box on the left of this page.
2a Academic Argument; Toulmin Model of Analysis
Stephen Toulmin
1922 - 2009
The Toulmin Model of Argument Analysis is a useful framework for analyzing and crafting arguments. The Toulmin Model is much more practical than Aristotle's syllogism because it allows for the nuances of argument that are nearly always present and do so much to either clarify or obfuscate.
The graphic below is a simplified schematic of the model. It can be used for either analyzing someone else's argument or crafting an argument of one's own. Here's what the letters mean:
D = data. This is the information, the evidence, the facts, and even the opinions that inform someone's position.
C = conclusion. This is the point one reaches after data input. Of course, if the quality of data is skimpy or inaccurate, the conclusion will be weak. But if the data is strong, the conclusion is likely to be strong as well.
W = warrant. The warrant is any reason we bring to the examination of the data. Remember our discussion about values? We talked about how personal experiences, family and community beliefs, and exposure to media all have an impact on the broad development of our opinions. Whenever we are faced with a new issue to examine and resolve, we bring all those beliefs, opinions, and values along with us as we examine whatever data is presented for consideration.
B = backing. This is the evidence we use to convince ourselves that the warrants we hold are valid. Backing for warrants does not need to be rational or even correct. Consider: We owned a Hyundai. Yep. We went right out and bought a car that most people at the time figured was not only weird but probably not any good. However, that Hyundai was a great car and had many luxury features we would not have had otherwise. We used that experience to reach the warrant that Hyundai is a good product. Someone else might feel that way about a Ford or Toyota or some other brand. Each person's experience is limited and not totally rational, but it doesn't matter.
Q = qualifier. These are the things that modify the intensity or scope of an argument. If I use "always," "often," or "occasionally," I am changing the intensity of my claim. Occasionally isn't nearly as strong as always. We should look for the ways in which an arguer qualifies a claim because it can make a lot of difference in whether or not we should accept it.
R = rebuttal. These are the objections someone else makes to an argument. These are based on points of difference or contention.
These are the basic elements of an argument building block. Keep in mind that in complex, extended or on-going debates, there can be many of these argument blocks. A single point may require support of multiple secondary claims before its validity is adequately established.
2b Research: Beyond Google, Yahoo, and Bing
How do YOU do research for an academic essay? Many think a quick trip to the 'net is all that's needed to learn about a subject. After all, everything is on the 'net, right? While it's true there is an enormous amount of information available about nearly any subject, much of it is not easily accessible. Consider an iceberg. Only about 10% of it is visible on the surface. The remainder lurks below ready to take out a Titanic. The surface web is like that; in fact, some estimates say only 1% of what the web contains is at the surface. The really good stuff ... as far as serious research goes ... is often in databases inaccessible to most standard search engines. Finding that good stuff is the subject of this discussion.
Campus Resources
Most of the resources listed on the pages below require login and password access. To get that information, go to the class Bb site, click on Resources and then on Research Resources. You'll find a list of login and password information. If you have any difficulty, contact your campus library for assistance.
COS subscription databases For help, call 559.737.6179
Reedley subscription databases For help, call 559.638.0352
Tutorials
EBSCO eBooks http://support.ebsco.com/training/flash_videos/eBooks/ebooks_searching/ebooks_searching.html
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) http://www.eric.ed.gov/WebHelp/ApplicationHelp_Left.htm#CSHID=63|StartTopic=Content/tutorials_available_eric.htm|SkinName=NewSkin
Gale Opposing Viewpoints http://www.gale.cengage.com/media/training/In_Context/viewpoints_search/viewpoints_search.htm
Gale Virtual Reference Library http://www.gale.cengage.com/media/training/GVRL/basics2.htm
ProQuest http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL943D4F9759615B70
